Ethical Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethical Theory - Assignment Example The utilitarian theory is applicable in this situation based on several factors. Firstly, it provides an opportunity to evaluate the morality of end of life medical support. Secondly, the value of end of life medical support can be evaluated by listing both the positive and negative outcomes of the issue. Allowing end of life care will give patients autonomy over their health. This is a good thing because everyone should have a viable alternative should the illness become too painful. In addition, they will enhance the management of resources. For example, the death of terminally ill patients will free up health care resources for other patients. However, the arguments made against the practice also offer some interesting and valid information on the issue. Firstly, it is believed that the practice will encourage individuals to commit suicide. Secondly, there is a possibility that doctors would recommend the practice as a means of saving resources. Thirdly, the life of any human bein g is sacred and should not be ended by their decision or through the decisions of other people. A comparison of arguments presented by both parties reveal that the practice will do more good than harm. In addition, contingency measures can be taken to regulate the practice. For example, there should be laws that state the conditions under which it will be acceptable. In addition, the doctors should exercise due diligence and ensure that they give their patients sufficient information to enable them to make informed choices (Yadav, 2006). This may include telling them that exercising their power of self rule may work against their best interests (Savory & Marco, 2009). This places a lot of power on doctors who may have vested interests in seeing the patient choose End of Life Care Support. The major strength of this theory is that it seeks to find the greatest ratio of good to evil. As a result, it supports the practice since it limits the drain of resources for

Female Genital Mutilation in Africa Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Female Genital Mutilation in Africa - Article Example By definition a rite of passage is "a ritual associated with a crisis or a change of status (as marriage, illness, or death) for an individual" (Agnes, 1990, p. 1018). Although the excisions do not occur because of a crisis, they do, in fact, occur in preparation of a change of status, as in marriage, and the woman or young girl often takes on new roles after the operation is performed. Those operations that are performed on infants cannot by definition be considered a rite of passage since the change in status is not in the near future. Thus, FGM can be considered a rite of passage when it is performed in preparation for the new roles the girl will assume in her future marriage. Indeed, the ritualistic components of FGM are evidenced by the preparations that are made for the operation. Girls are often given new jewellery, clothing, and gifts as part of the operation. In some cases, a great feast will occur in celebration of the operation. From the definition, it can be concluded tha t FGM qualifies as a ritual. Another reason often cited for FGM is that it is a fertility rite. Saadwai (2002) comments that if FGM were intended to be a fertility rite, the excision would be partial and symbolic: However, in the Sudan, after the girls are circumcised, they are then washed in the Nile as a fertility offering to the god of the Nile. There certainly are many aspects of FGM that make the connection with fertility rites a plausible one (Lowenstein, 1978; Salama, 1980; Saadawi, 2002). Sociologists and anthropologists have tended towards concurrence with the perception of FGM as a traditional ritual and rite of passage. Campbell (2006), most noted for his work on male circumcision, maintains that FGM is a direct offshoot of male circumcision rites among the ancient totemistic hunting groups. In these societies, there is an abundance of large game which led to the development of the art of hunting. Emphasis in the social structure was placed on the men as they were the providers. Wile the rite of circumcision in these societies reflected "a bias in favour of the males and therewith an emphasis on the sexual aspect of the rites and particularly on circumcision," female circumcision evolved in complementarily to the male fertility dimension of this practice. (Campell, 2006, 320). Some sociologists have argued an alternative theory, suggesting that FGM is an outcome of the desire of some primitive societies to control female sexuality and, thereby, ensure the paternity of children (Morris, 2003). This argument is inextricably linked to the mother's premarital chastity and fidelity during marriage, not the father's per se. This line of thinking can be taken to its logical conclusion: perform a physical operation to keep the woman from having sexual relations outside of marriage. This will be viewed as necessary for societies that see the constraint of female sexuality as the necessary condition for continued propagation of the human race (Sanderson, 2001; Morris,

Psychology Essays Forensic Psychology

Psychology Essays Forensic Psychology Forensic Psychology: Critically discuss research studies that have investigated the psychological factors associated with police stress. There is a natural assumption in the public consciousness that being a police officer is a stressful occupation. It is thought that the effects of dealing with the kinds of people and situations that police officers are regularly required to must be stressful. This perception is not just confined to lay-people: psychiatrists and occupational physicians find that police officers are in the top three occupations that are reported to the Occupational Disease Intelligence Network (ODIN). Similarly, studies such as Schmitdke, Fricke Lester (1999) have found a higher rate of suicide amongst police officers than other similar members of a German population. In a recent review of 26 different professions in the UK, Johnson, Cooper, Cartwright, Donald, Taylor Millet (2005) found that police officers were amongst the top 6 professions for high levels of stress and low levels of job satisfaction. Like any area of psychological research, individual differences are going to be important in how a person reacts to a situation. There has been some research carried out into the different individual factors that affect police stress in a number of different police forces around the world. Many of the researched populations have not, however, involved the police, but the factors that have been examined are common amongst occupational groups. Amongst these, Clarke Cooper (2000) include Type A behaviour, negative affectivity, the locus of control, coping styles and psychological hardiness. Negative affectivity, for example, is a tendency in an individual to show generally negative emotions and reactions across a range of situations. The research has frequently found a link between stress and negative affectivity. Similarly there is a large amount of research into Type A personalities. Type A personalities are often impatient, strive for achievement and are very competitive. This facto r has been shown to be important in connection with stress. Davidson Veno (1980) report that 75% of a sample of police officers showed that they had Type A personalities not a surprise considering some of the job requirements. The idea of psychological hardiness has also been shown to be important in stress reaction this has been defined by Lambert Lambert (1999) as involving the factors of control, commitment and challenge. Control refers to the extent to which a person believes that they have an influence over the things that happen to them, commitment envisages an involvement with events that are happening, and challenge infers an approach to life that incorporates and expects change as a matter of course. Hills Norvell (1991) examine psychological hardiness in a sample of 234 highway patrol officers. The findings showed that hardiness as well as neuroticism (almost the same as negative affectivity) moderated the relationship between measures of stress and its physiological and psychological consequences. Much of the older research into stress in the police has concentrated on the negative impact of police work. It has tended to assume that bad experiences at work will tend to result in stress, which in turn results in an absence of well-being. This may not be correct, as research has shown that bad experiences do not tend to have a negative effect on well-being (Cohen Hoberman, 1983). Hart, Wearing, Headey (1995) wanted to examine, then, how personality, coping and work experiences affected well-being. 527 Australian police officers completed a Perceived Quality of Life questionnaire that incorporated a number of different measures including the Satisfaction With Life scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen Griffin, 1985) and the General Well-Being Questionnaire (Cox Gott, 1990). This research made a number of findings based on these data. For their first finding they compared the psychological well-being of police officers to other professions, in this case school teachers, tertiary stude nts and community norms. It was found that police officers showed similar levels of psychological well-being to these other groups. This lead the authors of the this study to conclude that police officers have normal levels of psychological well-being. This finding can be questioned though, as Johnson et al. (2005) found that teachers also tend to have high levels of stress and low levels of job satisfaction. Hart et al. (1995) are not making valid comparisons. That caveat aside, the authors did look more specifically at what factors were associated with higher levels of stress. Here they confirmed what has already been a consistent finding in the research that it is organisational variables that contribute more to levels of stress than operational variables. In other words police officers in this sample, as in previous research, found their police departments a greater source of stress than dealing with criminals and the extreme situations they came into contact with during their j ob. As well as these aspects, this research also examined personality variables, police work experiences and coping strategies to see how they affected well-being but no particularly strong findings were reported other than some moderate correlations. Findings about the importance of organisational variables over operational variables have also been found in a sample of police officers from the UK. Collins Gibbs (2003) administered a postal questionnaire to 1,206 members of a county police force who were constables and sergeants. This questionnaire attempted to assess the complete loop of the stress-strain cycle by obtaining measures of perceived occupational stress and perceived life stress. Further to this measures were taken of personality factors, moderators in the form of social support and the individuals shift pattern to look for a correlation there as well. In addition to these the General Health Questionnaire was administered. Collins Gibbs (2003) report previous evidence of two studies in the UK that found that levels of mental ill-health amongst police officers was between 17 and 22% (Brown Campbell, 1990, Alexander, Walker, Innes Irving, 1993). In this study, however, mental ill-health had risen to 42% of the sampl e suggesting that levels of stress, and/or its effects, had risen in the 10 years between the studies. In examining the cause of the stress, this study confirmed the result found in Hart et al. (1995) in finding that it was organisational stressors that had a greater effect than operational stressors. The measurement of other factors such as personality, social support and shift work did not provide any particularly significant results. For example little association was found between shift work and stress levels, contrary to previous research which has found it to be associated with higher levels of stress (Brown Campbell, 1990). A clear disadvantage of this study in being able to generalise to other police officers was that it was carried out in a relatively small non-metropolitan police force. Different balances of operational issues and organisational demands may be present. The authors counter this criticism citing a study into Manchester Metropolitan police force which found a similar concentration on the organisational issues (Crowe Stradling, 1993). Much of the older research on stress in the police suffered from methodological flaws, such as using incorrect measures and failing to compare police officers with other occupational groups (Hart et al., 1995). Brough (2004) researched police officers as well as fire and ambulance officers to compare the levels of stress and the response. It was found that levels of psychological trauma and organisational stressors were relatively similar across the services, while again, the importance of organisational stressors over operational stressors was repeated. Looking now more closely at stress, and what kinds of stress police officers have to deal with, it is useful to outline a model of stress to inform the discussion. Mitchell Bray (1990) explain that stress reactions can be categorised into three main different forms: cumulative, delayed and acute. Cumulative stress builds up over a period of time from a number of incidents, while both delayed and acute stress may have their primary cause in one particular incident, often called a critical incident. Police officers are often exposed to a number of critical incidents so the study of their effects on officers is of importance. The effects of this stress have been found to be considerable in many studies. One particularly strong type of reaction to stress is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which may be caused by experiencing an event involving the threat of death or an actual death. This is clearly something that a police officer is more likely to experience in their career with regularity than in most other professions. Ursano McCarroll (1990), for example, found that the handling of dead bodies and parts of bodies was a significant psychological stressor that caused psychological trauma. Stephens Miller (1998) investigated the rates of PTSD amongst a sample of 527 New Zealand police officers. They found that the rate of PTSD was similar to that experienced by members of a different population that had experienced a traumatic event of a similar nature. The majority of individuals in both groups recovered successfully from the experience. An important finding of this study was that a relationship w as found between the number of traumatic events witnessed and subsequent diagnoses of PTSD. Research in the UK has augmented these findings, Green (2004) reports evidence from Robinson, Sigman Wilson (1997) that found the prevalence of PTSD amongst suburban police officers of 13%, this compares to the prevalence amongst the general population of 2-3%. Green (2004) examined whether PTSD was any more severe amongst members of the police force, once established, than it was in the overall population. The study found that there were no significant differences between the two groups. A criticism of this study was that the number of participants was limited, with only 31 police officers and 72 civilians taking part. Still, the strong effects of trauma are replicated in other research: Carlier, Lamberts Gersons (1997) found in a sample of 262 traumatised police officers that, 3 months after a trauma they showed introversion, emotional exhaustion. In addition, at 12 months post trauma the y continued to have difficulty expressing their emotions, suffered job satisfaction and lack of social support amongst other symptoms. How police officers process traumatic events, then, seems to be very important psychological factor in the stress it causes. Karlsson Christianson (2003) examined the phenomenology of traumatic experiences in a sample of 162 Swedish police officers. The research found that all the police officers who took part were able to remember a traumatic incident from while they had been on duty. The memory of that traumatic event tended to come from the officers early career and usually involved all of the senses many aspects of which could be remembered in considerable detail. The fact that it was early events that most readily came to mind suggested that these had the greatest impact on a police officer. Karlsson Christianson (2003) also cite earlier work by Stradling, Crowe Tuohy (1993) in the UK that found that during the socialisation process into the police force, there was a change of role so that the individual had a more professional attitude to their work. This was often associat ed with a more cynical approach and self-perception. Karlsson Christianson (2003) make the point that the alternative explanation is that police officers simply become more adept at dealing with the stressful situations with which they have to deal. From this survey of some of the research into the factors associated with police stress it can be seen that there are many aspects to consider. Individual differences have an important role to play in reactions to stressful events. In comparing sources of stress, much of the research has found the surprising result that organisational rather than operational factors are more important. It is possible that organisational factors become more important as operational factors diminish. The research into the phenomenology and coping mechanisms shows that police officers perhaps learn how to cope better with stressful events. Despite this, it is clear that witnessing a number of traumatic events is likely to lead to PTSD. A large proportion of the research looks at averages over reasonably large populations which masks the fine-grain details that are better explored by Karlsson Christiansons (2003) study. A hint at gaps in the current research is provided by Johnson et al. (2005) which fo und that police officers at lower levels suffered higher levels of stress than those in more senior positions. These authors suggest that this might be the result of higher levels of emotional labour a concept that has not yet been carefully examined in this occupational population.

Mythical Gods :: essays research papers

Mythical Gods Zeus - GÃ ¸d of the sky, the clouds, and the rain. Normally seen holding a thunderbolt. Represented by an Eagle. Married Hera and had many children from many affairs. Poseidon - Brother of Zeus, and ruler of the sea. Seen with a trident and connected to horses and bulls. Hera - Sister and wife of Zeus. Protector of marriage and ally of married women. Cow and Peacock were important to her. Hades - Ruler of the underworld and of the dead. Also lord of wealth (his Latin name means rich). Owned a helmet that made people invisible. Married Persephone who became queen of the underworld. Athena - Born from the head of Zeus in full armor without a mother She was his favorite child. The Goddess of the City she domesticated horses for human use. Represented by owl and olive tree. Apollo - Love child of Zeus and Leto. GÃ ¸d of music, art, archery, and sometimes the sun. Portrayed as many animals, crow and dolphin to name a few. Artemis - Twin sister of Apollo. Goddess of the wild and hunter for the GÃ ¸ds. Partial to all woodland creatures especially the deer. Aphrodite - Goddess of Love and of Beauty. Born from the foam of the sea. Irresistible to man and to GÃ ¸d alike. Represented as a dove or a swan. Hermes - Grandson of Atlas. Messenger of Zeus. Shown wearing a small helmet and sandals with wings on them. Also an expert theif. Most commonly used GÃ ¸d in all mythology. Ares - GÃ ¸d of war. Hated by his parents, Zeus and Hera. Most ruthless and forceful of the GÃ ¸ds. Shown as the vulture and as the dog. Hephaestus - GÃ ¸d of Fire. Often said to be ugly as opposed to the other rulers. Created women out of gold that helped him at home with his chores. Hestia - The Goddess of the hearth or the home.

Breaking the Sheltering Bar: A Response Essay

African American literature has been prolific and appreciated especially during the early twentieth century, the time when discrimination was rampant and lynching and infanticide were the results of the racial supremacy of the White Americans. Literature was an important tool to voice out reactions, ideologies, representations, truths and suggestions about the state of the forthcoming changes in the American society.Through the anti-lynching literature of Georgia Douglas Johnson and the introduction of   African American culture in James Weldon Johnson, we will take an in depth look at literal and critical interpretations of a selection of poems and analyze intertextually how these literary selections merge and provide context about the African American heritage.James Weldon Johnson in his poem â€Å"The Creation† pictured God as someone people can understand or relate to. He was not depicted as an illusory idea, but humanized to an extent we can visualize God. It was writte n in a vernacular similar to a preaching, with some familiar language and style similar to African American lingo. It describes creation in a lyrical manner, with repetitive lines.The poem depicts not only a biblical story but also a tradition and a culture imbibed African Americans. The composition of the poem was written like a sermon. We can see that certain biblical styles present in the poem. This trend combined with the lyrical trend similar to gospel songs show a way of incorporating native oral traditions in African American cultures. In Rubà ©n Jarazo’s article James Weldon Johnson. The Black Bard, simplicity and clarity are present in James Weldon Johnson’s literary styles.African American culture and society had its roots from slavery and discrimination, caged in a mould that there is a superior, imperialist society over them. Such ideas of discrimination had developed into the use of literature especially in the early twentieth century to express and react and suggest what they feel in the scrutiny of other races.According to Rubà ©n Jarazo in his article James Weldon Johnson, The Black Bard, African American academics and the general voice of the society had placed their voices on paper, creating a boom of interest in African American writing. This is what they called the Harlem Renaissance. This movement gave way for the exploration of Black American’s past, and present, as well as representing their individuality and cultural distinction.The transition of the focus of racial purity became more complex with the concept of cosmopolitanism. In the case of White and Black Americans having children, there is a new wave of discrimination as to where to draw the lines of superiority. This created literature about cosmopolites.Georgia Douglas Johnson has always portrayed the power and importance of the cosmopolitanism. African American culture as embedded in the cultural roots of American society. She defined this concept in the p oem Cosmopolite.The African American race was depicted to be a mixture of different bloods, a product of the interplay in historical and social contexts. They are alienated but not alienated she stands comprehending; from the condition of her life she view earth’s frail dilemma she is a descendant of fused strengths.Nothing contains her. She established the concept of the cosmopolite as a merge between two bloods, and though the cosmopolite seems alienated, nothing contains her, for she has this new strength, a cultural marriage between the African and American sensibilities. The issue is not anymore about the distinction between the two but how the concept of being one is affective of the society they are in.These social and interracial contexts also appeared in Georgia Douglas Johnson’s poems. In â€Å"The Heart of a Woman†, she depicted the imagery of a woman, as a bird, in the strike of dawn a flying through turrets and vales, but still encaged in a concept of a home. As night falls, she becomes encaged in an alien plight, still in an inevitable seclusion.According to C.C. O’Brien in the article Cosmopolitanism in Georgia Douglas Johnson's Anti-Lynching Literature, women’s domesticism over the patriarchy and masculinity of imperialism connotes the status of African American status in society. As much as they wanted to be free, freedom is not absolute.The White patriarchy that assumes a kindling and protective shelter, prohibits people to grow and take part in society. This can be interpreted in a way as O’Brien depicted the desire of African American communities for equality in social and political facets.

Expansion of NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed on 4th April 1949 after the Second World War as a realization of the importance of close ties between United States of America and Europe for the stability and security of world [1]. It was a watershed event in both the US history and in the history of 20th century, as it marked the isolationist strategy that had characterized US foreign policy since more than 2 centuries [2].The alliance was seen as a counter strategy to protect Western European democracies against the growing threat of communism under USSR[3]. Later on this strategic-military alliance proved an important tool in the wake of Cold War between USA and USSR where it was seen as only safeguard for US and its allies against the expansionist designs of communist countries spearheaded by USSR.However with the disintegration of USSR, unification of Germany and end of Cold War in 1989-1991, the functional utility of NATO were re-examined to decide its future role in the ne w world order. However, end of the Cold War did not signify end of role of NATO and soon it witnessed the wide ethnic and religious conflicts in the Eastern Europe, especially in Balkan nations [4]. By 1995, NATO was required to intervene directly in many of these affairs as well as play the role of peacekeeper in the newly independent countries.Later on in the decade, the issue of terrorism raised its head, and presented further challenges to roles, responsibilities and scope of NATO’s future strategies [5]. Through the entire decade of 1990s NATO was shaping up its own future action course and on June 8-9, 1997, it took decision to expand and include new democracies of The Czech Republic, Hungry, and Poland, all former USSR allies, as part of NATO[6]. Since this decision has risen much debated and heat over its contextual application in the changed world order, and criticisms have been abundant on the merit of expansionist strategy of NATO in the 21st century world [7]. Thi s paper shall examine the various issues involved with expansion strategy along with their merits and demerits.The debate against the expansionThe decision to expand the NATO has created heated debates and arguments, both in favor and against of the decision. Many hold the opinion that an expanded NATO would be beneficial for world order, global peace and security and economic development and free trade, while others view threats of greater regional tension and hegemony of certain nations if NATO continues to expand[8]. The Expansion of NATO is generally opposed on following four grounds[9]1.The expansion involves huge expenditure to protect the allied countries. Estimates have put the expenditure at more than $125 billion annually if US goes ahead with the expansion strategy.2.Dangerously high level of commitments on part of US of protecting the newly enrolled allied countries. Western European countries themselves have demonstrated little interest in the expansion program as they consider it primarily an American objective. Thus it falls back entirely on USA to shield the its allies which may be a daunting and horrific task given the complex geo-political relation they share with each other as well as USA’s former nemesis USSR.3. The third problem is a modification of second problem which involves conflicting nature of relations among even new entrants in   NATO. Further, some of the Central and Eastern European countries such as Hungry and Poland are embroiled centuries long feuds with their neighbors and a conflict, even though on limited scale would make it mandatory for US to assist the member country, thereby widening the scope of the conflict.4. The last concern presented relates to the possibility that expansion may forever engage NATO as a peacekeeping authority in the extreme Eastern Europe where situation among several countries, including Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Hungry, is so volatile that repeated conflicts can break out over a num ber of years.The expansion and responsible factorsThe expansion of NATO came after long negotiations with former communist nations that included Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. NATO took a series of steps, such as formation of North Atlantic Cooperation Council in 1991 and NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1994 to develop an amicable and peaceful environment for effective interaction and cooperation for these countries[10]. The decision to finally include Czech Republic, Hungry and Poland came after long deliberations and amidst a growing consensus that these nascent democracies needed to be integrated in the western democratic framework to help them achieve rapid and lasting economic development[11].Although the debate on this expansion has been widely across political and strategic spectrum, it should be noted that it was not for the first time that NATO had expanded. Article 10 of NATO’s foundation document has g iven it implicit rights to include new members on their meeting certain criteria[12].As one of the central premises of NATO is that attack on any of its member would be considered as attack against all and hence NATO would be s justified in taking military action against the aggressor, it attracted many European non members to the organization to safeguard their democratic values, freedom, heritage and civilization[13]. Thus NATO has undergone three major expansions since its formation to fulfill its commitment to stability and continued growth of economy and trade in the member countries.By 1990s most of the eastern European nations were convinced that in joining NATO remained their only hope to protect their integrity, and ensure their survival in an increasingly chaotic political order. On its part, NATO was also eager to embrace these countries has it perceived that most of problems afflicting Europe were occurring in non NATO member countries and therefore by increasing the sco pe of alliance, NATO would contribute towards increasing the stability and security in the Eastern Europe[14]. Further, the new responsibilities gave NATO the much-required opportunity to present a changed face and more responsible and comprehensive attitude in the post-Cold War world affairs[15].In wake of these developments, notwithstanding the criticism and debates surrounding the earlier expansion strategy to include the three former communist nations, USA has confirmed its commitment to further expansion of NATO in the coming years[16].European security and future expansion strategy of NATOAs the Cold War ended in 1989, it became apparent that Eastern Europe was headed for comprehensive restructuring and reformulating the strategies that were no longer applicable in the new context[17]. Abatement of hostilities between Western and Eastern Europe provided an unprecedented opportunity to policy makers to work towards attainment of long standing objective of European unification, in which NATO was considered as a powerful catalyst.NATO provided the vital platform where the political, economic and military interests of both Western and Eastern Europe came together and its own regional development took priority with view to strengthen the economic and strategic coalition of European states[18].   NATO was the instrument that facilitated this ideological and strategic unification of Europe.In the view of changed political order in Europe and risks of terrorism, NATO has formed a long term future expansion strategy that makes it open to every European country which seeks NATO’s help in protecting its identity and culture while making transition towards democracy[19]. Although the immediate and pressing needs of any plan of expansion have receded, especially after the successful handling of Balkan crisis by NATO and demonstration of its continued relevance as a capable peacemaker. Also, the latest enlargement, as discussed before, addressed one of the pr essing issues on NATO, to form an active collaboration with former USSR supporting countries.Yet the future expansion of NATO is inevitable, as many non –NATO European countries would begin to meet the conditions for entry into the Alliance and may question its commitment to peacekeeping if denied admittance[20].Therefore considering the requirement of expansion, NATO has planned the procedure in distinct steps, with no-surprise strategy. Aspirants may request for membership two years before the decision making years that are set as 2002, 2008-09, and 2012-14. As strategist point out that these expansions would be limited to introduction of maximum one or two nations at a time, rather than multiple entry[21]. These expansions would increase the membership of NATO to 25 countries, making it one of the most organized and important military alliances in the modern times.The future expansion strategy of NATO comprises of five steps1. Development of military cooperation with the n ewly joined state under Partnership for Peace (PfP) initiative2. Greater PfP coordination and cooperation to meet expectations and aspirations of new members3.Formation of rules and guidelines that assess a given country’s eligibility for consideration of NATO membership4.Assessment and scrutiny of a given country’s standing in fulfilling NATO’s commitment if accepted as member5.Deciding the time frame for new country to join the Alliance.ConclusionExpansion of NATO has to be seen from a broader and longer perspective. NATO has become an indispensable tool, especially in the changing nature of terrorism that is taking global dimension. As once the free democracies of Western Europe and USA combined to thwart designs of Communism, its equally vital in the present scenario for them and the new members to form an alliance that thwarts evil purpose of global terrorism for which an armed, military equipped and strategically capable military authority is necessary.NAT O, by expanding its membership, is in the process of gaining that crucial strategic leverage, as well as create conditions in the first place that would prevent many countries to be affected by menace of terrorism in the changed world strategic order.ReferenceAlexander Moens, Lenard J.Cohen, Allen G.Sens .NATO and European Security: Alliance Politics from the End of the Cold War to the Age of Terrorism.: Praeger.: Westport, CT. 2003Barany, Z. The Future of NATO Expansion: Four Case Studies. Cambridge University Press.: Cambridge, England.: 2003Carpenter T.G and Barbara C. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute.: Washington, DC.: 2001Gardener, H..   NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Kaplna, L.S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger.: Westport, CT. 1999Lepgold, J.   NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 7 8–106Millar A and Plesch D.T. Pushing the Envelope Too Far? Technology's Impact on NATO Expansion. Journal of International Affairs. Volume: 51. Issue: 2.: 1998. Page Number: 641.Seidelmann, R. NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Simon, J.   Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995Solomons, G.B. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997: The Blessings of Liberty.: Praeger.: Westport, CT.: 1998.Szayna, T.S. NATO Enlargement, 2000-2015: Determinants and Implications for Defense Planning and Shaping. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001.[1] A. Millar and D.T   Plesch. Pushing the technology too far?   Journal of International Affairs. [2] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 1 [3] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 2 [4] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security .   Praeger. 2003. [5] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security.   Praeger. 2003. [6] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 1. [7] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003. [8] H. Gardner. NATO for a New Century: Editor.   C. Hodge. Praeger. Westport, CT. 2002. P: 23. [9] T.G. Carpenter and A.B. Conry. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute. Washington DC. 2001. [10] Jeffrey Simon, Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995) [11] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 8 [12] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [13] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 2. [14] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [15] Joseph Lepgold, NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, † International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 78–106 [16] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [17] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 47 [18] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 48 [19] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-41. [20] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42. [21] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42 Expansion of NATO IntroductionNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed on 4th April 1949 after the Second World War as a realization of the importance of close ties between United States of America and Europe for the stability and security of world [1]. It was a watershed event in both the US history and in the history of 20th century, as it marked the isolationist strategy that had characterized US foreign policy since more than 2 centuries [2]. The alliance was seen as a counter strategy to protect Western European democracies against the growing threat of communism under USSR[3]. Later on this strategic-military alliance proved an important tool in the wake of Cold War between USA and USSR where it was seen as only safeguard for US and its allies against the expansionist designs of communist countries spearheaded by USSR.However with the disintegration of USSR, unification of Germany and end of Cold War in 1989-1991, the functional utility of NATO were re-examined to decide its future r ole in the new world order. However, end of the Cold War did not signify end of role of NATO and soon it witnessed the wide ethnic and religious conflicts in the Eastern Europe, especially in Balkan nations [4]. By 1995, NATO was required to intervene directly in many of these affairs as well as play the role of peacekeeper in the newly independent countries.Later on in the decade, the issue of terrorism raised its head, and presented further challenges to roles, responsibilities and scope of NATO’s future strategies [5]. Through the entire decade of 1990s NATO was shaping up its own future action course and on June 8-9, 1997, it took decision to expand and include new democracies of The Czech Republic, Hungry, and Poland, all former USSR allies, as part of NATO[6]. Since this decision has risen much debated and heat over its contextual application in the changed world order, and criticisms have been abundant on the merit of expansionist strategy of NATO in the 21st century w orld [7]. This paper shall examine the various issues involved with expansion strategy along with their merits and demerits.The debate against the expansionThe decision to expand the NATO has created heated debates and arguments, both in favor and against of the decision. Many hold the opinion that an expanded NATO would be beneficial for world order, global peace and security and economic development and free trade, while others view threats of greater regional tension and hegemony of certain nations if NATO continues to expand[8]. The Expansion of NATO is generally opposed on following four grounds[9]1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The expansion involves huge expenditure to protect the allied countries. Estimates have put the expenditure at more than $125 billion annually if US goes ahead with the expansion strategy.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dangerously high level of commitments on part of US of protecting the newly enrolled allied countries. Western European countries themselves have demonst rated little interest in the expansion program as they consider it primarily an American objective. Thus it falls back entirely on USA to shield the its allies which may be a daunting and horrific task given the complex geo-political relation they share with each other as well as USA’s former nemesis USSR.3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third problem is a modification of second problem which involves conflicting nature of relations among even new entrants in   NATO. Further, some of the Central and Eastern European countries such as Hungry and Poland are embroiled centuries long feuds with their neighbors and a conflict, even though on limited scale would make it mandatory for US to assist the member country, thereby widening the scope of the conflict.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The last concern presented relates to the possibility that expansion may forever engage NATO as a peacekeeping authority in the extreme Eastern Europe where situation among several countries, including Romani a, Serbia, Slovakia and Hungry, is so volatile that repeated conflicts can break out over a number of years.The expansion and responsible factors  The expansion of NATO came after long negotiations with former communist nations that included Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. NATO took a series of steps, such as formation of North Atlantic Cooperation Council in 1991 and NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1994 to develop an amicable and peaceful environment for effective interaction and cooperation for these countries[10]. The decision to finally include Czech Republic, Hungry and Poland came after long deliberations and amidst a growing consensus that these nascent democracies needed to be integrated in the western democratic framework to help them achieve rapid and lasting economic development[11].Although the debate on this expansion has been widely across political and strategic spectrum, it should be noted that it was n ot for the first time that NATO had expanded. Article 10 of NATO’s foundation document has given it implicit rights to include new members on their meeting certain criteria[12].As one of the central premises of NATO is that attack on any of its member would be considered as attack against all and hence NATO would be s justified in taking military action against the aggressor, it attracted many European non members to the organization to safeguard their democratic values, freedom, heritage and civilization[13]. Thus NATO has undergone three major expansions since its formation to fulfill its commitment to stability and continued growth of economy and trade in the member countries.By 1990s most of the eastern European nations were convinced that in joining NATO remained their only hope to protect their integrity, and ensure their survival in an increasingly chaotic political order. On its part, NATO was also eager to embrace these countries has it perceived that most of problem s afflicting Europe were occurring in non NATO member countries and therefore by increasing the scope of alliance, NATO would contribute towards increasing the stability and security in the Eastern Europe[14]. Further, the new responsibilities gave NATO the much-required opportunity to present a changed face and more responsible and comprehensive attitude in the post-Cold War world affairs[15].In wake of these developments, notwithstanding the criticism and debates surrounding the earlier expansion strategy to include the three former communist nations, USA has confirmed its commitment to further expansion of NATO in the coming years[16].European security and future expansion strategy of NATOAs the Cold War ended in 1989, it became apparent that Eastern Europe was headed for comprehensive restructuring and reformulating the strategies that were no longer applicable in the new context[17]. Abatement of hostilities between Western and Eastern Europe provided an unprecedented opportuni ty to policy makers to work towards attainment of long standing objective of European unification, in which NATO was considered as a powerful catalyst.NATO provided the vital platform where the political, economic and military interests of both Western and Eastern Europe came together and its own regional development took priority with view to strengthen the economic and strategic coalition of European states[18].   NATO was the instrument that facilitated this ideological and strategic unification of Europe.In the view of changed political order in Europe and risks of terrorism, NATO has formed a long term future expansion strategy that makes it open to every European country which seeks NATO’s help in protecting its identity and culture while making transition towards democracy[19]. Although the immediate and pressing needs of any plan of expansion have receded, especially after the successful handling of Balkan crisis by NATO and demonstration of its continued relevance as a capable peacemaker. Also, the latest enlargement, as discussed before, addressed one of the pressing issues on NATO, to form an active collaboration with former USSR supporting countries.Yet the future expansion of NATO is inevitable, as many non –NATO European countries would begin to meet the conditions for entry into the Alliance and may question its commitment to peacekeeping if denied admittance[20].Therefore considering the requirement of expansion, NATO has planned the procedure in distinct steps, with no-surprise strategy. Aspirants may request for membership two years before the decision making years that are set as 2002, 2008-09, and 2012-14. As strategist point out that these expansions would be limited to introduction of maximum one or two nations at a time, rather than multiple entry[21]. These expansions would increase the membership of NATO to 25 countries, making it one of the most organized and important military alliances in the modern times.The future expansion strategy of NATO comprises of five steps1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Development of military cooperation with the newly joined state under Partnership for Peace (PfP) initiative2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Greater PfP coordination and cooperation to meet expectations and aspirations of new members3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Formation of rules and guidelines that assess a given country’s eligibility for consideration of NATO membership4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Assessment and scrutiny of a given country’s standing in fulfilling NATO’s commitment if accepted as member5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Deciding the time frame for new country to join the Alliance.ConclusionExpansion of NATO has to be seen from a broader and longer perspective. NATO has become an indispensable tool, especially in the changing nature of terrorism that is taking global dimension. As once the free democracies of Western Europe and USA combined to thwart designs of Communism, its equally vital in the present s cenario for them and the new members to form an alliance that thwarts evil purpose of global terrorism for which an armed, military equipped and strategically capable military authority is necessary. NATO, by expanding its membership, is in the process of gaining that crucial strategic leverage, as well as create conditions in the first place that would prevent many countries to be affected by menace of terrorism in the changed world strategic order.ReferenceAlexander Moens, Lenard J.Cohen, Allen G.Sens .NATO and European Security: Alliance Politics from the End of the Cold War to the Age of Terrorism.: Praeger.: Westport, CT. 2003Barany, Z. The Future of NATO Expansion: Four Case Studies. Cambridge University Press.: Cambridge, England.: 2003Carpenter T.G and Barbara C. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute.: Washington, DC.: 2001Gardener, H..   NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Kap lna, L.S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger.: Westport, CT. 1999Lepgold, J.   NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 78–106Millar A and Plesch D.T. Pushing the Envelope Too Far? Technology's Impact on NATO Expansion. Journal of International Affairs. Volume: 51. Issue: 2.: 1998. Page Number: 641.Seidelmann, R. NATO for a New Century: Atlanticism and European Security. Editor:   Carl C. Hodge. Praeger.: Westport, CT: 2002.Simon, J.   Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995Solomons, G.B. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997: The Blessings of Liberty.: Praeger.: Westport, CT.: 1998.Szayna, T.S. NATO Enlargement, 2000-2015: Determinants and Implications for Defense Planning and Shaping. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001.[1] A. Millar and D.T   Plesch. Pushing the technology too far?   Journal of Interna tional Affairs.[2] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 1 [3] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 2 [4] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security.   Praeger. 2003. [5] A. Moens, L. J.Cohen, A. G.Sens.   NATO and European security.   Praeger. 2003. [6] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enlargement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 1. [7] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003. [8] H. Gardner. NATO for a New Century: Editor.   C. Hodge. Praeger. Westport, CT. 2002. P: 23. [9] T.G. Carpenter and A.B. Conry. NATO Enlargement: Illusions and Reality. Cato Institute. Washington DC. 2001. [10] Jeffrey Simon, Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, McNair Paper 39, 1995) [11] L.S. Kaplan. The Long Entanglement, Praeger, 1999. p. 8 [12] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [13] G.B. Solomons. The NATO Enla rgement Debate, 1990-1997. Praeger. P 2. [14] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [15] Joseph Lepgold, NATO’s Post-Cold War Collective Action Problem, † International Security, 23:1 (Summer 1998): 78–106 [16] Z.Barany. The Future of NATO Expansion. Cambridge University Press. 2003 [17] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 47 [18] R. Seidelmann, NATO for a New Century. Edit. Carl C. Hodge 2002. p- 48 [19] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-41. [20] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42.[21] T.S. Szayna. NATO Expansion 2000-2015. Rand. Santa Monica, CA. 2001. p-42

History of the Inca Empire

History of the Inca Empire The Inca Empire was the largest prehispanic society of South America when it was discovered by the Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro in the 16th century AD. At its height, the Inca empire controlled all of the western part of the South American continent between Ecuador and Chile. The Inca capital was at Cusco, Peru, and the Inca legends claimed they were descended from the great Tiwanaku civilization at Lake Titicaca. Origins Archaeologist Gordon McEwan has built an extensive study of archaeological, ethnographic, and historical sources of information on the Inca origins. Based on that, he believes that the Inca arose from the remnants of the Wari Empire based at the site of Chokepukio, a regional center built about AD 1000. An influx of refugees from Tiwanaku arrived there from the Lake Titicaca region about AD 1100. McEwan argues that Chokepukio may be the town of Tambo Tocco, reported in Inca legends as the originating town of the Inca and that Cusco was founded from that city. See his 2006 book, The Incas: New Perspectives for more detail on this interesting study. In a 2008 article, Alan Covey argued that although the Inca arose from the Wari and Tiwanaku state roots, they succeeded as an empire- compared to the contemporary Chimà º State,  because the Inca adapted to regional environments and with local ideologies. The Inca began their expansion from Cusco about 1250 AD or so, and before the conquest in 1532 they controlled a linear stretch of some 4,000 kilometers, including nearly one million square kilometers in area and over 100 different societies in coastal regions, pampas, mountains, and forests. Estimates for the total population under Incan control range between six and nine million persons. Their empire included land in what are the modern countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Architecture and Economics To control such a huge area, the Incas built roads, including both mountainous and coastal routes. One existing fragment of the road between Cusco and the palace of Machu Picchu is called the Inca Trail. The amount of control exercised by Cusco over the rest of the empire varied from place to place, as might be expected for such a huge empire. Tribute paid to the Inca rulers came from farmers of cotton, potatoes, and maize, herders of alpacas and llamas, and craft specialists who made polychrome pottery, brewed beer from maize (called chicha), wove fine wool tapestries  and made wooden, stone, and gold, silver and copper objects. The Inca were organized along a complex hierarchical and hereditary lineage system called the ayllu system. Ayllus ranged in size from a few hundred to tens of thousands of people, and they governed access to such things as land, political roles, marriage, and ritual ceremonies. Among other important duties, ayllus took maintenance and ceremonial roles involving the preservation and care of honored mummies of the ancestors of their communities. The only written records about the Inca that we can read today are documents from the Spanish conquistadors of Francisco Pizarro. Records were kept by the Inca in the form of knotted strings called quipu (also spelled khipu or quipo). The Spanish reported that historical records- particularly the deeds of the rulers- were sung, chanted, and painted on wooden tablets as well. Timeline and Kinglist The Inca word for ruler was capac, or capa, and the next ruler was chosen both by heredity and by marriage lines. All of the capacs were said to be descended from the legendary Ayar siblings (four boys and four girls) who emerged from the cave of Pacaritambo. The first Inca capac,  the Ayar sibling Manco Capac, married one of his sisters and founded  Cusco. The ruler at the height of the empire was Inca Yupanqui, who renamed himself Pachacuti (Cataclysm) and ruled between AD 1438-1471. Most scholarly reports list the date of the Inca empire as beginning with Pachacutis rule. High-status women were called coya and how well you could succeed in life depended to a degree on the genealogical claims of both your mother and father. In some cases, this led to sibling marriage, because the strongest connection you could have would be if you were the child of two descendants of Manco Capac. The dynastic king list which follows was reported by the Spanish chroniclers such as  Bernabà © Cobo  from oral history reports and, to a degree, it is somewhat under debate. Some scholars believe that there was actually a dual kingship, each king ruling half of Cusco; this is a minority viewpoint. Calendrical dates for the reigns of the various kings were established by Spanish chroniclers based on oral histories, but they are clearly miscalculated and so are not included here (some reigns supposedly lasted over 100 years). Dates included below are those for  capacs  that were personally remembered by the Inca informants to the Spanish. Kings Manco Capac (principal wife his sister Mama Occlo) ca. AD 1200 (founded  Cusco)Sinchà ­ Roca (principal wife Manco Sapaca)Lloque Ypanqui (p.w. Mama Cora)Mayta Capac (p.w. Mama Tacucaray)Capac YupanquiInca RocaYahuar HuacacViracocha Inca (p.w. Mama Rondocaya)Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (p.w. Mama Anahuarqui, built the  Coricancha  and  Machu Picchu, reformed Inca society) [ruled AD 1438-1471], royal estates at Pisac,  Ollantaytambo  and Machu PicchuTopa Inca (or Tupac Inca or Topa Inca Yupanqui) (principal wife his sister Mama Occlo, first capac considered supernatural in his lifetime) [AD 1471-1493], royal estates at Chinchero and  ChoquequiraoHuayna Capac [AD 1493-1527], royal estates at Quespiwanka and Tombebamba[civil war between Huascar and Atahuallpa 1527]Huascar [AD 1527-1532]Atahuallpa [AD 1532](Inca conquered by Pizarro in 1532)Manco Inca [AD 1533]Paullu Inca Classes of Incan Society The kings of the Inca society were called  capac. Capacs could have multiple wives, and often did. Inca nobility (called  Inka) were mostly hereditary positions, although special persons could be assigned this designation.  Curacas  were administrative functionaries and bureaucrats. Caciques  were agricultural community leaders, responsible for maintenance of agricultural fields and tribute payment. Most of the society was organized into  ayllus, who were taxed and received domestic goods according to the size of their groups. Chasqui  were message runners who were essential to the Inca system of government. Chasqui traveled along the  Inca road system  stopping at outposts or  tambos  and  were said to be able to send a message 250 kilometers in one day  and to make the distance from Cusco to Quito (1500 km) within one week. After death, the  capac,  and his wives (and many of the highest officials) were mummified and kept by his descendants. Important Facts Alternate names:  Inca, Inka, Tahuantinsuyu or Tawantinsuyu (the four parts together in Quechua)Population:  Estimates widely accepted by Inca scholars range between six and 14 million within an area extending from Colombia to Chile, in 1532 when the Spanish arrived.State language:  Inca rulers adopted a form of Quechua for their administrative language  and doing so spread it into outlying areas of their empire, but the Inca incorporated many different cultures and their languages. The Inca called their form of Quechua runasimi or mans speech.Writing system:  The Inca apparently kept accounts and perhaps historical information using a  quipu, a system of knotted and dyed string; according to the Spanish, the Inca also chanted and sang historical legends and painted wooden tablets.Ethnographic sources:  Lots of ethnographic sources are available about the Inca, primarily Spanish military leaders and priests who were interested in conquering the Inca. These texts are var iously useful and often quite biased. Some few examples include  Bernabà © Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo 1653, and Relacion de las huacas, among many other reports;  Garcilaso de la Vega, 1609; Diez Gonzalez Holguin, 1608; anonymous Arte y vocabulario en la lengua general del Peru, 1586; Santo Tomas, 1560; Juan Perez Bocanegra, 1631; Pablo Joseph de Arriaga, 1621; Cristobal de Albornoz, 1582 Economics Intoxicants:  Coca, chicha (maize  beer)Markets:  A widespread trade network facilitated by open marketsCultivated crops:  Cotton, potatoes,  maize, quinoaDomesticated animals:  Alpaca,  llama,  guinea pigTribute  was paid to Cusco in goods and services; tribute tallies were kept on quipu and an annual census was kept including the number of deaths and birthsLapidary arts:  ShellMetallurgy:  Silver, copper, tin and to a lesser extent gold were cold-hammered, forged, and air-annealedTextiles:  Wool (alpaca and  llama) and cottonAgriculture:  When necessary in the steep Andean terrain, the Inca built terraces with a gravel base and stepped retaining walls, to drain excess water and allow water flow from the terrace tread to the next terrace downslope. Architecture Construction techniques used by the Inca included fired adobe mud bricks, roughly shaped stones interspersed with mud mortar, and large, finely shaped stones coated with mud and clay finishing. The shaped stone architecture (sometimes called pillow-faced) is among the finest in the world, with large stones sanded into tight jigsaw like patterns. The pillow-faced architecture was reserved for temples, administrative structures and royal residences like Machu Picchu.Many Inca military installations and other public architecture were constructed throughout the empire, at sites such as Farfn (Peru), Qara Qara and Yampara (Bolivia), and Catarpe and Turi (Chile).The Inca Road  (Capaq Ñan or Gran Ruta Inca) was built connecting the empire  and included some 8500 kilometers of major thoroughfare crossing fifteen distinct ecosystems. 30,000 kilometers of subsidiary trails branch off the main road, including the Inca Trail, which is the part that leads from Cusco to Machu Picchu. Religion Ceque system: a system of shrines and ritual pathways radiating out from the capital city of Cusco. Emphasis on ancestor worship and fictive kinship structures (ayllus).Capacocha ceremony: a state event that involved the sacrifice of objects, animals and sometimes children.Burials:  The Inca dead were mummified and placed in open sepulchers so that they could be disinterred for important annual ceremonies and other rituals.Temples/shrines  known as huacas included both built and natural structures Sources: Adelaar, W. F. H.2006  Quechua. In  Encyclopedia of Language Linguistics. Pp. 314-315. London: Elsevier Press.Covey, R. A. 2008  Multiregional Perspectives on the Archaeology of the Andes During the Late Intermediate Period (c. A.D. 1000–1400).  Journal of Archaeological Research  16:287–338.Kuznar, Lawrence A. 1999 The Inca Empire: Detailing the complexities of core/periphery interactions. Pp. 224-240 in  World-Systems Theory in Practice: Leadership, production, and exchange, edited by P. Nick Kardulias. Rowan and Littlefield: Landham.McEwan, Gordon. 2006  The Incas: New Perspectives.  Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Online book. Accessed May 3, 2008.

Aviation Essay Example

Aviation Essay Example Aviation Essay Aviation Essay Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual CHAPTER 2: SIGNALS, SIGNS AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS This chapter provides the information you need to know about Pennsylvania roadways. It covers: Signals Signs Pavement Markings SIGNALS Traffic signals are installed at intersections to control the movement of vehicles and pedestrians. Traffic signals are arranged in either vertical lines or horizontal lines. When they are arranged vertically, red is always on top and green on the bottom. When they are arranged horizontally, red is always on the left and green on the right. RED, YELLOW AND GREEN TRAFFIC LIGHTS AND ARROWS When there is a STEADY RED LIGHT, you must stop before crossing the marked stop line or crosswalk. If you do not see any lines, stop before entering the intersection. Wait for a green light before you start. You may turn right while the light is red, unless a NO TURN ON RED sign is posted at the intersection. You must first stop, check for and yield to pedestrians and other traffic. You may also turn left after you stop at a red light, if you are in the left lane and are turning left from a one-way street onto another one-way street, unless a sign tells you not to turn. You must first stop and yield to pedestrians and other traffic. A STEADY YELLOW LIGHT tells you a steady red light will soon appear. If you are driving toward an intersection and a yellow light appears, slow down and prepare to stop. If you are within the intersection or cannot stop safely before entering the intersection, continue through carefully. A STEADY GREEN LIGHT means you may drive through the intersection, if the road is clear. You may also turn right or left unless a sign tells you not to; however, when turning, you must yield to other vehicles and pedestrians within the intersection. ?   A GREEN ARROW means you may turn the way the arrow points. When you turn during the green arrow phase, your turn is protected because oncoming traffic is stopped by a red light. If the green arrow turns into a green light, you may still turn in that direction, but first yield to pedestrians and oncoming traffic. ?   A YELLOW ARROW means the movement permitted by the green arrow is about to end. You should slow down and prepare to stop completely before entering the intersection. If you are within the intersection or cannot stop safely before entering the intersection, carefully turn in the direction the arrow is pointing. ?   Although not common in Pennsylvania, a RED ARROW is used in other states. It means you may not turn in the direction the arrow points. -7- Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual FLASHING SIGNALS A flashing yellow light means CAUTION. Slow down, look and proceed with care. A flashing red light has the same meaning as a STOP sign. You must come to a complete stop. Then, look both ways, and proceed only after the intersection is clear. NON-FUNCTIONING TRAFFIC LIGHTS A non-functioning traffic signal should be treated as though it were a four-way STOP sign. RAMP-METERING SIGNALS Some highway entrance ramps have traffic signals at the end of the ramp that alternate between steady green and steady red. Ramp metering signals are used to control the flow of traffic onto very congested highways and usually operate during peak rush hours. You must wait for the green signal before you enter the highway. On single-lane ramps, only one (1) car may enter the highway each time the light turns green. For multi-lane on ramps, there will be a ramp meter for each lane. The green light does not protect your entrance onto the highway † you must still look for a safe gap in traffic to enter the highway. LANE USE CONTROL SIGNALS ?   Special signals may also be placed directly over lanes to control traffic. These are commonly used at toll booths, on bridges, tunnels and on multi-lane roads in cities where the direction of travel for a particular lane changes to ease the flow of traffic into or out of the city during peak rush hour. The following signals show how specific lanes of a street or highway should be used: X X A steady downward green arrow over a traffic lane means you may use the lane. A steady yellow X over a traffic lane means you must change lanes because the direction of travel for that lane is about to be reversed. Get ready to leave the lane safely. A steady red X over a lane means you are not allowed to use the traffic lane. A white, steady, one-way left-turn arrow over a lane means you may only turn left, if you are in that lane. A white, steady, two-way left-turn arrow over a lane means you may only turn left, if you are in that lane, but the lane is shared by left-turning drivers approaching from the opposite direction. -8- Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual PEDESTRIAN SIGNALS Pedestrians must obey traffic and pedestrian signals. The pedestrian signals you must obey are the WALK and DONâ„ ¢T WALK lights or the lighted picture of a walking person (meaning walk) and an upraised hand (meaning donâ„ ¢t walk). If there are no pedestrian signals at the intersection, pedestrians must obey the red, yellow and green traffic lights. Sometimes pedestrians are not aware of their responsibilities at traffic and pedestrian signals. Be alert for pedestrians, who may not obey the signal. Always yield to pedestrians. When a steady WALK or walking person comes on, start crossing, but be alert for turning vehicles that may not lawfully yield the right of way. When the flashing DONâ„ ¢T WALK or flashing upraised hand begins: a. Finish crossing, if you are in the street. When the steady DONâ„ ¢T WALK message or steady upraised hand is displayed, do not cross. b. Do not start to cross, if you have not left the curb. Blind Pedestrians When driving near a blind pedestrian who is carrying a white cane or walking with a guide dog, you must slow down, always yield the right-of-way and then proceed with caution. Be prepared to stop your vehicle in order to prevent injury or danger to the pedestrian. SCHOOL ZONE SIGNALS School zone signals are flashing yellow signals placed on the school zone speed limit signs. You must travel no faster than 15 mph when the yellow signals are flashing or during the time periods indicated on the sign. Exceeding the speed limit in a school zone will result in three (3) points on your driving record, and you will also be fined. RAILROAD CROSSING SIGNALS Drivers are alerted when approaching a railroad crossing by the railroad crossing sign. Railroad crossings should be approached with caution at all times. You should always look both ways and listen for any approaching trains or signals before proceeding across the railroad tracks. You are required to stop at all railroad crossings when there is a signal of an approaching train. These signals include flashing red lights, a lowered crossing gate, a flagger signaling or a trainâ„ ¢s audible signal of warning. Do not move forward or attempt to go around any gate or ignore any signal of an approaching train. If there are no signals at the railroad crossing, you should slow down and prepare to stop, if you see or hear a train approaching. Proceed with caution only after all signals are completed and then only when there is evidence no trains are approaching the crossing. You should stop if a train is approaching and has sounded its audible signal or is plainly visible and in hazardous proximity to the crossing. Do not stop your vehicle on a railroad track, regardless of whether a train appears to be coming. If traffic is backed up because of a traffic signal, stop sign or for any other reason, make sure you stop your vehicle in a location where it will be entirely clear of any railroad tracks. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information about how to safely cross a highway-railroad intersection. -9- OBEY RAILROAD CROSSING SIGNS AND SIGNALS Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual SIGNS Signs are divided into three (3) basic categories: Regulatory, Warning and Guide signs. Most signs within each category have a special shape and color. REGULATORY SIGNS Regulatory signs tell you what you must do, or must not do, according to the law. The regulations posted on these signs advise you about speed limits, the direction of traffic, turning restrictions, parking restrictions, etc. If you do not obey the messages on regulatory signs, you could be fined and receive points on your driving record because you are breaking the law. You also risk your safety and the safety of others by disobeying the messages on regulatory signs â€Å" for example, failing to stop at a stop sign, passing another car where it is not safe to pass, driving faster than the posted speed limit or driving the wrong way on a one-way street. Usually, regulatory signs are black and white vertical rectangles or squares, like SPEED LIMIT signs. Some regulatory signs are black, white and red, like the NO LEFT TURN sign with a circle and slash. Other regulatory signs are red and white, like STOP, YIELD, DO NOT ENTER and WRONG WAY signs. The STOP sign is the only octagon-shaped (8-sided) sign you see on the highway. At an intersection with a STOP sign, you must stop completely, check for pedestrians and cross traffic to clear the intersection before you go again. Slowing down without coming to a full stop is illegal. When you see a crosswalk or a stop line, stop before the front of your vehicle reaches the first painted line. If you cannot see traffic, yield to any pedestrians and then carefully pull forward past the line until you can see clearly. Check for traffic and pedestrians and then go ahead when the intersection is clear. EXCEPT RIGHT TURN This sign is also used in conjunction with stop signs. This sign allows motorists to make the right turn without stopping. A FOUR-WAY STOP sign means there are four stop signs at this intersection. Traffic from all four directions must stop. The first vehicle to reach the intersection should move forward first. If two vehicles reach the intersection at the same time, the driver on the left yields to the driver on the right. If facing one another both can proceed with caution, watching for possible turns. 4-WAY YIELD signs are triangular (3-sided) in shape. When you see this sign, you must slow down and check for traffic and give the right-of-way to pedestrians and approaching cross traffic. You stop only when it is necessary. Proceed when you can do so safely without interfering with normal traffic flow. Remember, you must have a sufficient gap in traffic before you can continue on at either STOP or YIELD sign locations. TO ONCOMING This sign is used in conjunction with a yield sign at a one-lane bridge or underpass location to alert motorists the one-lane roadway requires them to yield the right-of-way to opposing traffic. TRAFFIC RAILROAD CROSSBUCK SIGN. This sign is placed at a railroad crossing where the tracks cross the roadway. You should treat the crossbuck sign as a YIELD sign; slow down and prepare to stop, if you see or hear a train approaching. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information about railroad crossing safety. 10 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual The DO NOT ENTER and WRONG WAY signs work as a team. The DO NOT ENTER sign is put at the beginning of one-way streets and ramps. When you see this sign, do not drive onto that street or ramp in the direction you are heading. WRONG WAY signs are placed farther down the one-way street or ramp. They are placed there to catch your attention, if you accidentally turn onto the street or ramp. The ONE WAY sign means traffic is allowed to move only in the direction the sign is pointing. If you turn onto a one-way street traveling in the opposite direction, you are likely to get into a head-on collision. DIVIDED HIGHWAY NO TRUCKS DIVIDED HIGHWAY This sign means the road you are on intersects with a divided highway. The divided highway is really two (2), one-way roadways that are separated by a median or a guide rail. At the first roadway, you can only turn right, and at the second roadway, you can only turn left. NO BICYCLES NO PEDESTRIAN CROSSING NO TRUCKS, NO BICYCLES and NO PEDESTRIAN CROSSING Operators of trucks, bicycles and pedestrians may not use roadways where these signs are posted. The following signs are located where certain actions are prohibited at any or all times: NO U-TURN NO RIGHT TURN NO LEFT TURN This sign prohibits U-turns. Do not make a complete turn to go in the opposite direction. This sign indicates right turns are prohibited. Do not make a right turn at this intersection. This sign indicates left turns are prohibited. Do not make a left turn at this intersection. DO NOT PASS NO PARKING You may not park a vehicle at locations where this sign is posted. DO NOT PASS This sign may be placed in areas where you may not pass any vehicles going in the same direction. It is often accompanied by the yellow pennant-shaped sign that says NO PASSING ZONE (Refer to Warning Signs). The following LANE USE CONTROL SIGNS (Directional) are placed at or near intersections above the traffic lane they control to show what maneuver(s) are permitted from that lane. This sign indicates that at the intersection ahead traffic in the left lane must turn left and traffic in the adjoining lane may turn left or continue straight. 11 CENTER LANE LEFT TURN ONLY This sign indicates where a lane is reserved for the exclusive use of left-turning vehicles in either direction and is not to be used for through traffic or passing. Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual LANE USE CONTROL SIGNS (continued) TURN TO LEFT OR RIGHT STRAIGHT OR TURN RIGHT TURN RIGHT ONLY If you are in a lane controlled by signs like these, you may travel in either direction the arrows point. TURN LEFT ONLY If you are in a lane controlled by a sign with a turn arrow and the word ONLY, when you reach the intersection, you must make the turn. You may travel only in the direction the arrow points, even if you are in the turn-only lane in error. KEEP RIGHT These signs direct drivers to keep to the right of the traffic island or divider. A SPEED LIMIT sign indicates the maximum legal speed under ideal conditions for the stretch of highway where it is posted. Your safety may depend upon driving slower than the posted speed under poor conditions. TEEN CRASH?FACT Driving too fast for conditions is the No. 1 reason 16 and 17-year-old drivers are involved in crashes. You may not turn during the red light cycle at an intersection where one of these signs is posted. You must wait for the signal to turn green. LEFT TURN YIELD ON GREEN LEFT TURN YIELD ON?GREEN This sign indicates a left turn is permitted, but you must yield to oncoming traffic. It is commonly placed at intersections, near the left-turn traffic signal, to remind drivers left turns are not protected when the circular green signal comes on. OPPOSING TRAFFIC HAS EXTENDED GREEN OPPOSING?TRAFFIC? HAS?EXTENDED?GREEN This sign is posted where opposing traffic may continue to move after your signal has turned red. RESERVED PARKING Although this sign is not black and white, it is a regulatory sign. It marks areas where parking is reserved for disabled persons or severely disabled veterans. Vehicles parked in these spaces must display authorized registration plates or parking placards. Unauthorized vehicles parked in these spaces are subject to a fine and towing costs. 12 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual WARNING SIGNS Warning signs tell you about conditions on or near the road ahead. They warn you about possible hazards or changes in roadway conditions. They are posted before the condition, so you have time to see what is ahead, decide how you should respond and slow down or change your travel path, if necessary. Warning signs are usually diamond shaped with black symbols or words on a yellow background. NO PASSING ZONE This is the only pennant-shaped warning sign. This sign marks the beginning of a no passing zone and is placed on the left side of the road facing the driver. CHEVRON SIGNS There is a sharp change in the direction of the road, such as a curve to the left or right. The road bends in the direction the chevron points. When used in a curve, there will be an advanced curve warning sign, and there may be several chevron signs placed throughout the curve. LEFT CURVE The road curves ahead to the left. You need to slow down, stay in the center of your lane and prepare to navigate through the left-bending curve. RIGHT CURVE The road curves ahead to the right. You need to slow down and position your vehicle slightly to the right of the center of your lane, as you drive through the right-bending curve. SHARP LEFT TURN The road ahead turns sharply to the left. You need to slow down substantially, stay in the center of your lane and prepare to navigate through the sharp left turn. Some sharp turn signs have an advisory speed located on the sign or posted below it. SHARP RIGHT TURN The road ahead turns sharply to the right. You need to slow down substantially, position your vehicle slightly to the right of the center of your lane and prepare to navigate through the sharp right turn. Some sharp turn signs have an advisory speed located on the sign or posted below it. SET OF CURVES The road ahead curves first in one direction and then back in the other direction (a set of two (2) curves). Slow down and prepare to navigate through the set of curves. RIGHT AND LEFT SHARP TURNS The road ahead turns sharply first in one direction and then back in the other direction. Slow down substantially and prepare to navigate through the set of turns. 13 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual WINDING ROAD (SERIES OF CURVES) This sign indicates there are three (3) or more curves in a row on the road ahead. ONE DIRECTION LARGE ARROW The road ahead changes direction at an extreme angle. Before you reach such an extreme curve, slow down as much as you would to make a turn at an intersection. ROAD ENTERING CURVE The main road curves to the left with a side road entering from the right. Approach the intersection with extra caution. A driver preparing to enter the main road may not be able to see you approaching from around the curve and may pull out in front of you, leaving you little room to avoid a crash, if you are traveling too fast. TRUCK ROLLOVER This sign identifies curves where trucks traveling at excessive speeds have a potential to rollover. ADVISORY SPEED SIGNS This sign may be used with any diamond-shaped warning sign. The highest speed you should travel around a sharp left curve ahead is 25 mph. MERGING TRAFFIC This sign is placed on a major roadway to tell you traffic may be merging into your lane from another roadway or a ramp. In this example, the traffic will be entering your lane from the right. Entering traffic must yield to traffic already on the major roadway. ADDED LANE This sign is placed in advance of a point where two roadways meet. It means merging is not necessary because the entering traffic uses a new lane that has been added to the roadway. 14 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual DIVIDED HIGHWAY BEGINS The highway ahead becomes a divided highway with two oneway roadways and a median or divider separating traffic moving in opposite directions. Keep to the right of the divider or median. DIVIDED HIGHWAY ENDS The divided highway on which you are traveling ends ahead. You will then be on a roadway with twoway traffic. Keep to the right of the centerline and watch for oncoming traffic. TWO-WAY TRAFFIC AHEAD The one-way street or roadway ends ahead. You will then be traveling on a road with two (2) lanes of traffic moving in opposite directions. Stay in your lane to the right of the centerline. This sign may also be placed at intervals along the two-way roadway. LANE ENDS These signs tell you one (1) lane on a multi-lane roadway will end ahead. In these examples, the traffic in the right lane must merge left. LANE ENDS MERGE LEFT INTERSECTION?SIGNS The signs below show types of intersections. By showing you in advance how the roads join each other, the signs let you know when the road you are traveling on does not continue straight through the intersection. The signs also warn you about possible problems with the movements of other vehicles. Approach all of these intersection types with extra caution by searching ahead and preparing to slow down, if necessary. CROSS ROAD SIDE ROAD T INTERSECTION Y INTERSECTION CIRCULAR INTERSECTION TWO DIRECTION LARGE ARROW This sign is placed at the far side of a T-intersection to tell you that you can only go left or right. The road you are on does not continue straight through at the intersection. NARROW BRIDGE OR UNDERPASS AHEAD Each lane on the bridge or underpass becomes narrower, and there generally is no shoulder. You need to slow down and make sure you stay in your lane. If a driver approaching from the opposite direction has a wide vehicle or is taking up part of your lane, wait until he or she clears the area. SLIPPERY WHEN WET Especially slippery conditions exist when wet. In wet weather, reduce your speed and increase your following distance. Do not accelerate or brake quickly. Make turns at a very slow speed. 15 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual DEER CROSSING This sign is posted in areas where deer frequently cross and crashes with deer have occurred. LOW CLEARANCE This sign may be placed on an underpass, or at the entrance to a tunnel or parking garage. Do not enter if your vehicle is taller than the height listed on the sign. SHOULDER SIGNS These signs are placed in advance of locations where the shoulder is lower than the road or the shoulder is soft (not paved). The LOW SHOULDER sign is used where the shoulder is as much as three (3) inches below the level of the road. The SHOULDER DROP OFF sign is used for even more severe drop-off situations. If you stray off of the roadway and one (1) wheel drops off onto a low shoulder or a soft shoulder, do not slam on the brakes or steer sharply to try to get back onto the roadway†you can easily lose control of your vehicle! Refer to Chapter 3 for information about how to safely recover from drifting off of the pavement. HILL/DOWNGRADE There is a steep hill ahead. Slow down and be ready to shift to a lower gear to control your speed and to save wear and tear on your brakes. TRAFFIC SIGNAL AHEAD A traffic signal is present at the intersection ahead. You may not be able to see it because of a curve or hill. If the light is red (or if the light has just turned green), a line of vehicles may be stopped ahead. When you see this sign, slow down and prepare to stop, if necessary. STOP SIGN AHEAD A STOP sign is present at the intersection ahead. You may not be able to see it because of a curve, hill or something else blocking your view. There also may be a line of vehicles stopped ahead at the STOP sign you cannot see. When you see this sign, slow down in preparation to stop. BICYCLE CROSSING AHEAD Bicyclists may be crossing your path ahead. Be prepared to slow down, if necessary. This sign may have either a yellow background (as shown) or a fluorescent yellowgreen background. RAILROAD CROSSING AHEAD You are approaching a railroad crossing. When you see this sign, begin looking and listening for a train. This sign is placed far enough in advance to allow you to stop before you reach the tracks, if necessary. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information about railroad crossing safety. 16 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual ADVANCED INTERSECTION/RAILROAD CROSSING SIGN The intersecting road has a railroad crossing within a very short distance from the intersection. If you are planning to turn onto the intersecting road and if a train is approaching, be prepared to stop. SHARE BICYCLE/MOTOR VEHICLE SHARE THE ROAD Used at roadway pinch points (no shoulder, narrow lanes, etc.) to warn you, as a motorist, to provide adequate space for bicyclists to share the roadway. THE ROAD PEDESTRIAN CROSSING Used at a marked crosswalk or in advance of locations where pedestrians may be crossing your path. Be prepared to slow down or stop, if necessary. This sign may have either a yellow background (as shown) or a fluorescent yellow-green background. SCHOOL This is the only pentagon-shaped sign used on the roadway. It means you are approaching a school zone. If the sign is accompanied by a downward-pointing arrow, it means you are at the school zone crosswalk. You should slow down, watch for children crossing the road and stop, if necessary. This sign may have either a yellow background (as shown) or a fluorescent yellow-green background. HORSE-DRAWN VEHICLE This sign is posted in areas where slow moving, horse-drawn vehicles cross or share the roadway with motorized vehicles. OBJECTS ADJACENT TO THE ROADWAY Objects close to the edge of the road sometimes need a marker to warn drivers of the potential danger. These include underpass supports, ends of bridges, guiderails and other structures. In some cases, there may not be a physical object involved, but rather a roadside condition such as a drop-off or an abrupt change in the roadway alignment. Such roadside objects and conditions are indicated by the following markers, where the stripes are angled down in the direction you need to move to avoid the hazard: Right Hazard Keep to the Left Center Hazard Keep to the Left or Right 17 Left Hazard Keep to the Right Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual WORK ZONE SIGNS (WORK AREA AND CONSTRUCTION ZONE SIGNS) Work Zone Signs are normally diamond shaped, like warning signs, but they are orange with black lettering instead of yellow with black lettering. These signs identify maintenance, construction or utility areas where workers or equipment may be on or near the roadway. Stay alert and slow down when you see these signs. Turn on your headlights when traveling through a work zone, no matter what time of day. This is the law for all posted work zones, not just for active ones. Using your headlights makes your vehicle more visible to other traffic as well as to highway workers. If you are pulled over by police for a traffic violation in a work zone and your vehicleâ„ ¢s headlights are not turned on, you will be fined an additional $25. ACTIVE WORK ZONE WHEN FLASHING INCREASED PENALTIES ROAD WORK AHEAD END ACTIVE WORK ZONE These WORK ZONE signs are placed at the beginning and end of an active work zone. An active work zone is the portion of a work zone where construction, maintenance or utility workers are on the roadway, or on the shoulder of the highway next to an open travel lane. ROAD WORK AHEAD This sign informs you there is road work ahead and also cautions you to slow down. WORKERS AHEAD Workers may be on or are very close to the roadway, so take special care when traveling through the area. LANE CLOSED AHEAD This sign tells you a particular lane will be closed at a specified distance ahead. RIGHT LANE RIGHT LANE CLOSED CLOSED 1000 FT 1000 FT FLAGGER AHEAD (ROAD CONSTRUCTION AHEAD) The sign to the left shows a flagger is controlling traffic ahead. As shown below, flaggers use STOP and SLOW paddles or a red flag to signal you to stop or slow down. Pay special attention to flaggers when approaching and traveling through a work zone. TRAFFIC MUST STOP AND WAIT TRAFFIC MUST MOVE SLOWLY 18 DID YOU KNOW Highway workers have forms to report motorists who speed or drive unsafely in work zones to the police, who may then issue a ticket, resulting in fines and points. Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual ELECTRIC ARROW PANELS Large electronic flashing arrow panels (move/merge right or left) placed in the roadway or mounted on vehicles advise approaching motorists of lane closures. Begin your merge well in advance of the sign. An arrow panel displaying either of the messages shown in the figure to the far right (caution) indicates there is a work area ahead next to the travel lane. Drive with extra caution. MOVE/MERGE RIGHT CAUTION MOVE/MERGE LEFT CHANNELING DEVICES Barrels, tubes, cones and vertical panels are all devices used in work zones to guide you through changing traffic patterns and keep you away from hazards associated with road work. GUIDE SIGNS Guide signs provide information about intersecting roads, help direct you to cities and towns, and show points of interest along the highway. Guide signs also help you find hospitals, service stations, restaurants and motels. Usually these signs are horizontal rectangles. HIGHWAY/EXPRESSWAY GUIDE SIGNS The following three signs are examples of highway and expressway guide signs. They are green with white letters. Most highway and expressway signs are posted the same way. For example, there is usually one advance sign which is followed by another advance sign. The third sign then is posted at the exit. Several signs are necessary because the high speed and heavy traffic on highways can cause drivers to miss seeing a single sign. Also, motorists may need to make one or more lane changes to exit. EXITS 30 E-W EXITS 30 E-W 22 22 Colonial Park Progress 2 MILES Colonial Park Progress 1 MILE EXIT 30 E 22 EAST Colonial Park EXIT NUMBERS Exit numbers have been revised to correspond with the mile markers similar to states to the west and south of Pennsylvania. This change allows motorists to quickly calculate distances between exits, e.g., the distance between Exit 95 and Exit 20 is 75 miles. EXIT 30-W If a yellow panel with the message EXIT ONLY is on a highway sign, the lane below the sign will not continue through the interchange; instead, the lane will go off of the road to form a ramp. If you are in a lane posted with an EXIT ONLY, you may change lanes, or you must exit the highway if you stay in this lane. 19 22 WEST Progress 1 MILE EXIT ONLY EXIT 30 W 22 WEST Progress EXIT ONLY Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual HERE ARE SOME TIPS TO LET YOU KNOW WHICH SIDE OF THE HIGHWAY YOU WILL EXIT: EXIT 7 EXIT 13 WEST 22 80 Trenton 1 MILE Exit 13 for Route 22 will be on the left side of the highway. 80 22 Bowie Exit 7 for Route 22 will be on the right side of the highway. The small green EXIT number sign on top of the green rectangular sign will be on the left side of the sign, if the exit is on the left side of the highway. The small green EXIT number sign on top of the green rectangular sign will be on the right side of the sign, if the exit is on the right side of the highway. If the sign has white arrows, the arrow will point in the direction of the exit. INTERSTATE NUMBERING SYSTEM The red, white and blue shield sign indicates a highway is an interstate. These interstates are specially numbered to help motorists find their way through unfamiliar areas. A code is used to show if the route travels mainly east and west or north and south, and to show if the route is in the eastern, middle or western United States. Decoding the Interstate Numbering System. The numbers on the interstate shield can be a great navigational aid when you understand how they are developed. They generally follow this pattern: One or two-digit, even-numbered interstates are generally east-west routes. Nationally, the numbers increase from I-10 in the south to I-94 in the north. In Pennsylvania, I-76 is in the southern part of the state, and I-84 and I-80 are in the northern part. One or two-digit, odd-numbered interstates are generally north-south routes. Numbers increase from the west coast I-5 to the east coast I-95. In Pennsylvania, I-79 is in the western part of the state, and I-95 is in the eastern part. Three-digit numbered interstate highways connect to other major highways. If the first of the three (3) digits is an even number, the highway usually connects to interstate highways at both ends, such as I-276 in Philadelphia. Many times such routes are known as loops or beltways. When the first of the three (3) digits is an odd number, the highway is usually a spur route connecting with another interstate at only one (1) end, sometimes going into a city center such as I-180 in Williamsport. 1 9112 1490 16 MILE MARKERS Mile markers are used on some highways to indicate the number of miles from the point where the traffic route entered the state or from its beginning, if it does not extend to the state borders. The numbers start at zero in the western part of the state for east-west roadways and in the southern part of the state for north-south roadways. The numbers increase as you travel east or north and decrease as you travel west or south. For example, when you enter Pennsylvania from the west on Interstate I-80, the mile markers begin at Mile 1 and increase as you travel east. Knowing how to read mile markers can help you to know exactly where you are and give an approximate location, if you have to call for roadside assistance. 20 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual ROUTE MARKERS The following signs indicate the route on which you are traveling. The route marker shows you the road is U.S. Traffic Route 22. 22 39 The junction plate on this route marker shows you are approaching the intersection of U.S. Traffic Route 22. 22 WEST 22 WEST The supplemental arrow on this route marker assembly means you are approaching a right turn to continue on U.S. Traffic Route 22 West. JCT TO 22 22 The keystone marker shows you the road is Pennsylvania Traffic Route 39. The direction plate on this route marker shows you are traveling west on U.S. Traffic Route 22. The route marker sign and TO trailblazer sign and the supplemental arrow means if you want to gain access to U.S. Traffic Route 22, you must continue ahead. SERVICE SIGNS The following signs are examples of service signs. The signs are square or rectangular, are blue with white letters or symbols, and show the location of various services located at the next exit. D HOSPITAL TELEPHONE FOOD GAS DIESEL LODGING TOURIST-ORIENTED DIRECTIONAL SIGNS 3 Susquehanna Indian Museum GETTYSBURG NATIONAL MILITARY PARK 2 MILES 21 These signs are square or rectangular and may be blue or brown with white lettering. The signs direct motorists to tourist attractions such as museums, historical landmarks, or state or national parks. Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual PAVEMENT MARKINGS Most roads have permanent markings to show the center of the road, travel lanes or road edges. The markings that show the center of the road are solid or broken lines. These pavement markings also indicate special lane use. Yellow lines divide traffic traveling in opposite directions. Yellow lines are used to mark the center of two-lane roads, and to mark the left edge of divided highways, one-way streets and ramps. Solid white lines divide lanes of traffic traveling in the same direction. Solid white lines are also used to mark the right edge of the road. M M A double, solid yellow centerline shows the center of a twoway road. Even if it is not marked with a NO PASSING sign, passing by traffic traveling in either direction is not allowed on roads marked in this manner. The combination of a solid yellow and a broken yellow centerline also shows the center of a two-way roadway. You may pass if the broken line is on your side of the road and safe conditions exist, but you may not pass when a solid yellow line is on your side of the road. M A single, broken yellow centerline shows the center of a two-way, two-lane road. Passing is permitted on either side, if safe conditions exist. When passing, you must use the lane belonging to oncoming traffic. M As a general rule, broken traffic lines can be crossed and solid lines cannot, except when making a turn. Some examples of different pavement markings and their meanings follow: M M M M TURNING LANE ONLY MM MM MM MM Marking patterns like these may be found on many three-Iane or five-lane highways. The outside, solid yellow centerline means you cannot use the center lane for passing. The inside, broken yellow and solid yellow centerlines show vehicles traveling in either direction may use the center lane only to make left turns. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information about using center turn lanes safely. Multi-lane highways without medians (center dividers) are often marked as shown. Broken white lines show which lanes can be used by vehicles traveling the same way. You may cross the broken white lines to pass, (be sure the passing lane is clear) but you may not cross the double yellow centerlines to pass. Traffic is traveling in the opposite direction in the lane to the left of the yellow centerline. This pattern is used on most limited access highways with medians (center dividers). The right edge of the road is marked with a solid white line. The left edge of each side is marked by a solid yellow line. The traffic lanes for each side are marked by broken white lines, which may be crossed. Pavement markings also include words painted on the pavement and arrows that supplement messages posted on regulatory and warning signs. Examples include the words STOP AHEAD before an intersection with a STOP sign, YIELD or white triangles painted across the lane to indicate you must yield to approaching traffic, SCHOOL before a school zone, R X R before a railroad crossing, BIKE LANE for a lane reserved for bicyclists, ONLY with a left or right arrow to indicate the lane is reserved for turns only and large white arrows to indicate the direction of travel on oneway streets and highway off-ramps. 22 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual CHAPTER 2 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. WHEN YOU SEE THIS SIGN, YOU MUST: A. Stop completely, check for pedestrians, and cross traffic B. Slow down without coming to a complete stop C. Stop completely and wait for a green light D. Slow down and check for traffic 2. THIS IS THE SHAPE AND COLOR OF A __________ SIGN. A. Stop B. Wrong Way C. Yield D. Do not enter 3. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. Stop B. No U-Turn C. Yield D. Do not enter 4. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. No U-Turn B. No Turning C. No left turn D. No right turn 5. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. No U-Turn B. No left turn C. No right turn D. No turning 6. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. You must turn left or right B. You are approaching a T-intersection C. The road that you are on intersects with a divided highway D. Designates an overpass above a divided highway 7. YOU NEED TO USE EXTRA CAUTION WHEN DRIVING NEAR A PEDESTRIAN USING A WHITE CANE BECAUSE: A. He or she is deaf B. He or she has a mental disability C. He or she is blind D. He or she has a walking problem 8. WHEN DRIVING NEAR A BLIND PEDESTRIAN WHO IS CARRYING A WHITE CANE OR USING A GUIDE DOG, YOU SHOULD: A. Slow down and be prepared to stop B. Take the right-of-way C. Proceed normally D. Drive away quickly 23 DIVIDED HIGHWAY Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings 9. IF THERE ARE NO SIGNALS AT A RAILROAD CROSSING, YOU SHOULD: A. Slow down and prepare to stop if you see or hear a train approaching B. Proceed as quickly as possible over the tracks C. Proceed through the crossing at a normal rate D. Proceed slowly over the tracks 10. YOU MAY DRIVE AROUND THE GATES AT A RAILROAD CROSSING: A. When the train has passed B. Never C. When the lights have stopped flashing D. When other drivers drive around the gates 11. IF YOU SEE THIS SIGN ABOVE YOUR LANE, YOU: A. May not exit the freeway in this lane B. May continue through the interchange or exit the freeway in this lane C. May stay in this lane and continue through the interchange D. Must exit the freeway if you stay in this lane 12. HIGHWAY AND EXPRESSWAY GUIDE SIGNS ARE: A. Orange with black letters B. Green with white letters C. Yellow with black letters D. Red with white letters 13. THIS SIGN IS USED TO WARN DRIVERS ABOUT: A. Upcoming intersections B. Road construction C. Road curves ahead D. Changes in traffic lanes 14. THIS SIGN TELLS YOU THAT: A. No turns are allowed on this road B. The road narrows ahead C. There are a series of curves ahead D. The road may be slippery when wet 15. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. Left curve ahead B. Series of curves C. S curved ahead D. Slippery when wet 16. THIS SIGN INDICATES THAT: A. There is a steep hill ahead B. No trucks are allowed on the hill C. A logging road is ahead D. There are trucks on the hill 17. A YELLOW AND BLACK DIAMOND-SHAPED SIGN: A. Warns you about conditions on or near the road B. Helps direct you to cities and towns ahead C. Tells you about traffic laws and regulations D. Tells you about road construction ahead 24 PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual 18. THE SIGN WITH THIS SHAPE AND COLOR IS A _____________ SIGN. A. No passing zone B. Wrong way C. Railroad crossing D. Stop 19. WHICH OF THESE SIGNS IS USED TO SHOW THE END OF A DIVIDED HIGHWAY A. 2 1 2 3 LANE ENDS B. 4 MERGE C. 3 LEFT D. 1 20. THIS SIGN IS USED TO WARN DRIVERS ABOUT: A. Lane ends, merge left B. Road curves ahead C. Upcoming intersections D. Road construction 21. THIS SIGN SHOWS ONE TYPE OF: A. Intersection B. Road curve C. Right turn D. Lane change 22. THIS SIGN SHOWS ONE TYPE OF: A. Right turn B. Intersection C. Lane change D. Road curve 23. WHAT SHOULD YOU BE MOST CONCERNED ABOUT WHEN YOU SEE THIS SIGN A. Driving with your headlights out of alignment because one side of your car is higher than the other B. Damaging a tire, if you drift onto the shoulder C. Hydroplaning, if the shoulder has water on it D. Losing control of your vehicle, if you drift onto the shoulder, because of a drop off 24. WHAT A. B. C. D. IS THE MEANING OF THIS SIGN The traffic signal ahead is red The traffic signal ahead is broken The traffic signal ahead is green There is a traffic signal ahead 25. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. Divided highway ends B. One-way street begins C. One-way street ends D. Divided highway begins 26. FROM TOP TO BOTTOM, THE FOLLOWING IS THE PROPER ORDER FOR TRAFFIC LIGHTS: A. Red, yellow, green B. Red, green, yellow C. Green, red, yellow D. Green, yellow, red 25 4 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings 27. IF A GREEN ARROW TURNS INTO A GREEN LIGHT, YOU: A. May still turn but you must yield to oncoming traffic B. May no longer turn and must proceed straight C. Still have the right of way to turn D. No longer have to turn the way the arrow indicates 28. A STEADY YELLOW LIGHT AT AN INTERSECTION MEANS: A. Go B. Yield to other cars C. Slow down and prepare to stop D. Stop 29. A FLASHING YELLOW LIGHT MEANS THAT YOU SHOULD: A. Slow down and proceed with care B. Continue through if the way is clear C. Stop and proceed when a green light appears D. Stop and proceed when the way is clear 30. YOU MUST STOP WHEN YOU SEE A: A. Flashing red light B. Steady yellow light C. Yellow arrow D. Flashing yellow light 31. A STEADY GREEN LIGHT AT AN INTERSECTION MEANS THAT YOU: A. Must slow down and prepare to stop B. Must stop and check for oncoming traffic before proceeding C. May drive through the intersection if the road is clear D. May not turn right 32. A STEADY YELLOW LIGHT MEANS THAT A _______ LIGHT WILL SOON APPEAR. A. Flashing yellow B. Steady green C. Steady red D. Flashing red 33. YOU MAY CONTINUE CAREFULLY THROUGH A YELLOW LIGHT IF: A. There is an emergency vehicle crossing your lane B. There are no pedestrians crossing C. You are turning right D. You are within the intersection 34. YOU MAY TURN LEFT AT A RED LIGHT IF: A. There is no traffic coming in the opposite direction B. You are turning from a two-way street onto a one-way street C. You are turning from a one-way street onto another one-way street D. The car in front of you turns left 35. IF A TRAFFIC LIGHT IS BROKEN OR NOT FUNCTIONING YOU SHOULD: A Stop and wait for it to be repaired B Stop and wait for a police officer to arrive C. Continue as if it were a four-way stop sign D. Continue as you normally would 26 PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual 36. YOU MAY TURN RIGHT ON RED IF YOU: A. Stop first and check for traffic and pedestrians B. Have a right turn red arrow C. Are in the left lane D. Slow down first 37. WHEN A. B. C. D. MAKING A RIGHT TURN ON A GREEN LIGHT, YOU MUST: Maintain normal driving speed Stop and look for oncoming traffic Yield to pedestrians Increase your normal driving speed 38. THE SPEED LIMIT IS _______ MILES PER HOUR WHEN THE YELLOW LIGHTS ARE FLASHING ON THE SCHOOL ZONE SPEED SIGN. A. 25 B. 15 C. 20 D. 35 39. A FLASHING RED LIGHT AT A RAILROAD CROSSING MEANS: A. Stop, do not proceed until signals are completed B. Slow down and proceed if clear C. Proceed with caution D. You have the right-of-way ?   40. THIS GREEN ARROW ON A LANE USE CONTROL SIGNAL MEANS THAT: A. You may use this lane B. No traffic is allowed in this lane C. You have the right-of-way D. You must merge into this lane 41. THIS SIGN MEANS: A. Pedestrians ahead B. End of construction zone C. School crossing ahead D. Flagger ahead 42. THIS SIGN MEANS THAT: A. A community service group is picking up trash along the highway ahead B. Workers are on or very close to the road in the work zone ahead C. Children are at play ahead D. There is a pedestrian crosswalk ahead 43. WHEN AN ARROW PANEL IN A WORK ZONE SHOWS EITHER OF THE FOLLOWING PATTERNS, IT MEANS: A. The bulbs on the sign are burned out B. Drive with caution C. Changes lanes immediately D. Tune your radio to a station that gives traffic updates 44. THE CENTER LANE IN THE ILLUSTRATION IS USED FOR: A. Regular travel B. Left turns only C. Passing only D. Emergency vehicles only 27 ROAD WORK AHEAD Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual 45. YOU MAY PASS IF THE LINE DIVIDING TWO LANES IS A ___________ LINE. A. Broken white B. Double solid yellow C. Solid yellow D. Solid white 46. LANES OF TRAFFIC MOVING IN THE SAME DIRECTION ARE DIVIDED BY ____ LINES. A. Yellow B. White C. Red D. Black 47. YOU MAY NOT PASS ANOTHER CAR ON EITHER SIDE OF A _______ CENTERLINE. A. Combination solid and broken yellow B. Single broken yellow C. Double solid yellow D. Single broken white 48. YOU MAY CROSS SOLID YELLOW LINES: A. To pass traffic moving in the same direction B. During daylight hours only C. At any time D. When making turns 49. THE ROAD EDGE ON THE RIGHT SIDE IS MARKED BY A ___________ LINE. A. Broken white B. Solid yellow C. Solid white D. Broken yellow audio 50. LANES OF TRAFFIC MOVING IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION ARE DIVIDED BY ____ LINES. A. White B. Red C. Black D. Yellow 51. WHEN YOU SEE THIS BLACK AND YELLOW SIGN, IT MEANS: A. The road to the right is for one-way traffic only B. Detour to the right because of road construction C. Slow down because the road ahead changes direction at an extreme angle D. There is a cross road ahead on your right 52. WHEN YOU SEE THIS SIGN, IT MEANS: A. There is an object on the roadway B. Traffic is coming from the right C. The road is curving sharply to the left D. There is a merge point ahead 53. AT AN INTERSECTION CONTROLLED BY A STOP SIGN, IF YOU CANâ„ ¢T GET A GOOD VIEW OF CROSS-STREET TRAFFIC WHEN YOU STOP BEHIND THE WHITE STOP BAR PAINTED ON THE PAVEMENT, YOU SHOULD: A. Wait 5 seconds, then proceed. B. Sound your horn before proceeding C. Put down your windows, listen for traffic, and then proceed D. Pull forward slowly, check for traffic and pedestrians, and proceed when clear 28 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual 54. THE POSTED SPEED LIMITS SHOW: A. The minimum legal speed limit B. The exact speed at which you must travel to avoid a ticket C. The maximum safe speed under ideal road and weather conditions D. The maximum safe speed under all road conditions 55. A HIGHWAY WITH TWO-WAY TRAFFIC IS MARKED BY WHICH OF THESE SIGNS A. 1 1 2 3 LANE ENDS B. 2 MERGE C. 3 LEFT D. 4 56. FROM A. B. C. D. 4 THE CENTER LANE, WHAT MANEUVERS CAN YOU PERFORM Make left turns Make U-turns Pass slower-moving traffic All of the above 57. WHICH OF THESE SIGNS MEANS THAT DRIVERS SHOULD KEEP TO THE RIGHT A. 2 1 2 3 B. 1 C. 3 D. 4 29 4 Chapter 2 Signals, Signs and Pavement Markings PA Driverâ„ ¢s Manual CHAPTER 2 ANSWER KEY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. A C D A C C C A A B D B C C D A A A A 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. A A B D D D A A C A A C C D C C A C B 30 A A D B B B A B C D C D C C D C C A A